Annotated Bibliography

English as a Second Language + Content Based Instruction +Online Instruction

The following review covers books, articles and websites on electronic learning on the areas above. They are relevant to my final project: To design 5 content-based ESL, e-learning sessions.

1. Graves, K. (Ed.). (1995). Teachers as course developers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Although this book was edited by Kathleen Graves, an erstwhile collaborator of our own CSULA Professor Ann Snow, it forms part of a larger series edited by Jack C. Richards the internationally renowned specialist in second and foreign language teaching. Reflecting the same practical approach as Richard’s previous work, Graves has aimed this work at ESL teachers who want to design and deliver higher quality English language programs. It includes practical case studies and offers a framework for those new, and not to new to teaching to deliver programs according to student needs. Progressing from “needs analysis” to “evaluations”, the book offers advice on how to manage different learning situations, how to assess courses, and how to meet the changing needs of students. It is a refreshingly practical view of teaching and the contents can be applied to designing e-learning courses as it re-asserts the view often lost in e-learning, that students, not teachers, must be positioned at the centre of activities.

2. Frendo, E. (2005). How to teach business English. Essex, England: Longman, 2005.
Frendo teaches English in Berlin while Harmer is on the faculty of the MATESOL New School, New York and their combined experience shows. While the previous book was aimed primarily at designers of programs for school-age students, this book is aimed those teaching professional business people, but it approaches learning in the same practical way. There are still too few “how to teach” books on content-based instruction (CBI) and still too few good teachers. So this book is really valuable as it shows how to select and source coherent, interesting information and design increasing but manageable task complexity. The teaching methods presented are tried-and-tested and there are lots of lesson proforma that could be used for guidance for online lessons for blended learning courses. For CBI business teaching online or not this book is very valuable.

3. Loudon, K. C., & Loudon, J. P. (2006). Essentials of business information systems (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2006.
These authors present a balanced view with K. Laudon on the faculty of NYU and Jane Laudon running her own info-sys business. The combination of academic underpinning and business praxis is reflected in the thoroughness of their approach. It is not possible to review the entire contents but examining “Analyzing web Site Design and Information Requirements” (p. 397) gives a flavor or their focus. They suggest systematically analyzing popular web sites and noting issues such as: functionality, data sources- inputs and outputs; processing, design specifications, links to internal and external systems or organizations, value to you or your firm. The book of course explores other areas and tackles less popular subjects such as Ethics and Social Issues. The book is expensive but comes with a free CD rom and Pearson’s teaching assistance online.

4. Cuthrell, K., & Lyon, A. (2007). Instructional strategies: What do online students prefer. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching. 3(4). 357– 362.
After using the previous book to select an appropriate online instructional mode, the information in this paper is useful for guidance on which of six instructional strategies to pursue. Both authors are aspiring assistant professors but despite their inexperience, poor editing and skimpy bibliography, some of the messages here are worth taking on board. Their research found that some online programs offer the emotional support and sense of community that students used to have from face-to-face learning only. Their most surprising finding was that students preferred independent learning and of the six strategies, Interactive Powerpoint and Read and Respond modules garnered most points because, it was found, students could manage their own learning, at their own pace. Grades figured large in these students’ thinking because working independently, the grades were their sole responsibility. The least popular learning strategy was viewing a video lecture before submitting an individual paper/reflection. It is clear that more work on a larger student group needs to be done but this is still important stuff where building a learning website and content is being considered. So too with the next study by Rivera and Rowland of Ithaca College who, though not well known have valuable online teaching experience.

5. Rivera, B., & Rowland, G. (2008). Powerful e-learning: A preliminary study of learner experiences. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching. 4(1). 14–23.
The authors explain the word “powerful” as “a learning experience that has special qualities… [and] results in new knowledge and skills that change how one thinks and acts in some substantial way and often transfers to a wide range of circumstances” (pp. 1-2). This paper reports on the latest of four studies. Significant findings from the previous studies showed that active engagement in authentic settings, personal interaction with the teacher/expert and opportunities to reflect were paramount; learning must be active, must involve personal growth and must be relevant to students’ life and/or work; learning must also be hands-on, have practical applications in real environments and there must be supportive interactions with others. The fourth study reinforced the findings of the previous research but added a further dimension, the valuable role played in e-learning by meaningful social interactions and active engagement in authentic settings. The messages coming out of these studies are clear and unambiguous: e-teaching is most powerful when students feel it is relevant to their own needs and secondly, when they feel supported in their quest to learn. The challenge is incorporating all this is e-learning materials.

6. Clark, R., & Meyer, R. E. (2008). e-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning, (2nd ed). San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Almost all of the contents in this book relate to my aims for my final project but as this annotation cannot reflect the richness of content in the entire book or the intelligence offered by these two e-learning gurus. Only section 12, which explains social software tools for synchronous and asynchronous collaboration, including blogs and wikis is covered here. Computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is made possible through email, message boards, online conferencing, chats, breakout rooms in virtual classrooms, wikis and blogs. In addition to each of these applications which offer distinctive features for the teacher and learner CSCL can be used for resource management, as a repository for electronic documents, for templates and mentor contacts. The book is jammed with ideas on how to incorporate best practice into CSCL, optimize individual learning outcomes and ensure such safeguards as user confidentiality. It presents a well balanced view and excellent guidance for anyone wanting to use or set up their own learning environment.

7. Hewitt, J. (2008). http://www.facebook.com/about.php Retrieved July 12, 2008.
This website has been included because of recent updates to the facebook/iphone offering that we are told offers faster-than-broadband synchronous access to all your Facebook contacts and documents. Clark and Meyer, reviewed above, cover this development but even since they sent their book to the publisher, applications and features have move beyond what they envisaged. With Facebook for iPhone learners can now chat with whichever cohort member they identify as being online – and it is free. That latter part alone will budge numbers of student-users up rapidly because if gives the reassurance of never feeling alone when studying something difficult. There will always be someone to share information with, work on an assignment with or just check facts with and knowing this makes some teaching tasks easier. This website is worth checking out regularly because it sparks new ideas, raises questions about the student-teacher relationship and of course, reinforces Vygotskian values. When that philosopher died in 1934 could he ever have imagined his philosophies would play out in such a way? New feature in the pipeline are identifying a friend’s whereabouts and letting them know yours – presumably so that you can meet face-to-face for a discussion or the proximity-comfort of a human being. A case of “plus ca change, plus la même chose”.

8. Brown, J. S. (2002). Growing up digital: How the web changes work, education and the ways people learn. United States Distance Learning Association. 16(2).
From his position as Chief Scientist at Xerox’s Palo Alto establishment, Brown positions the web along with innovations such as electricity and extends that to show the present ubiquity of once-luxury items. In the same way, he states, the web will become accessible to all and by definition education. “Learning in situ” is the key and multimedia is the enabler. More can be learned in a shorter time and it need not be surface learning if the vehicles are interesting and stimulating enough. Becoming an effective “digital bricoleur” someone who sources the appropriate tool for apprehending new information, should be the aim of all e-learners, according to Brown. In this article, he points not only to existing e-learning applications but to some yet to come. His reasoning resonates with Clark and Meyer’s as he sees action-learning as the turf of the future. So, the lessons for e-learning instructors seem clear: design e-learning tools not for passive but for active students who want to collaborate and explore and do multiple things simultaneously through the use of multi-media. This is a short read but the interesting graphs are worth seeing not only because they are reminiscent of Charles Handy’s 4 power structures.

9. Wolinsky, H. (2008). Business, In the news, Insight, Life at Skype, News, events, milestones. http://www.skype.com/features Retrieved July 12, 2008.
When studying English as a Second Language, TESOL people learn about the Critical Period Hypothesis whereby there is a period in life beyond which learning a second language not only becomes more difficult but for some is nigh impossible. While many of us would agree that here acquiring the phonemes of a 3-7 year old is practically impossible, most teachers take a more optimistic attitude and recognize motivation as the most important factor in any learning situation. Skype, which is still a vastly underused teaching resource, illustrates a unique motivational aspect for many students, the ability to see their instructor as well as hear them. Skype’s current 0.4 version offers synchronous voice and visual communications on a point-to-point basis and it is free to most countries in the world. It enables same time teaching in class and at home and is communications that are country independent. Having just acquired a new American, Harvard educated, COO greater things are expected in the future but for the time being, signing up and trying out the ultra-user-friendly website costs nothing.

10. Oxford University Computing Services. (2008). Virtual seminars for teaching literature. http://www.oucs.ox.ac.uk/ltg/projects/jtap Retrieved July 12, 2008.
In searching through the web for examples of online learning sites for English, I found there were very few examples. Part of this assignment was to find real-world examples. I searched for 1 hour and opened 10’s of websites which by their titles, promised online English learning but instead offered online teacher training, job opportunities, enrollment for postal services for CD’s. This site was typical of a genre and it illustrates the lack of commercial uptake of new online learning technologies in the English language field. For once the not-for-profit sector, schools and universities seem to be leading the way in development of learning websites. Perhaps that is because WebCT is so expensive but with all the free blogs, wikis, moogles etc. available, there is still no evidence of significant uptake. The question then arises, when are universities going to exploit their expertise and bring language, and other learning, within the grasp of the man-in-the-street, who may wish to learn but is loath to sign up for an institution considered beyond his grasp.
--ooOoo--

Final Project: Online content-based instruction

Introduction and literature review

The challenge in this EDIT 490 class is going to be to develop a set of materials that form lesson plans, guided by the three disparate philosophical approaches of English as a second language (ESL); content-based instruction (CBI) and online instruction (OI). Given the number of teachers globally involved in each discipline, it is possible that material has been developed around this combination but, if it has, I have not been able to locate it. The literature review that follows covers several books in each area but before going on to describe that literature, a brief discussion on why this combination of English learning is needed has been included. It is undoubtedly going to be a significant growth area over the next few years prompted by the ubiquitous nature of internet communications and new applications that facilitate more effective distance and online learning through multiple-intelligence programs. Capturing and describing the characteristics of an effective ESL+CBI+OI offering, through five lesson plans, is the aim of this project.

ESL
Highlighting the need for more English teaching, Saville (2008) reports International Organization for Migrants statistics as showing that “one in thirty-five persons in the world is now a migrant” (p. 1). English is now recognized as the globe’s lingua franca (Niño-Murcia, 2003) and demand for the language can only increase. Though Bauman (1992) believes that this globalization for most means the whole world eating the same fast food and watching the same television shows, Phillipson (2000) sees globalization as “the global consumerist culture …a single market” (p. 90) where internationally recognized consumer goods are available to even the remotest communities able to afford them. Branded goods such as Microsoft, Gucci, Gillette, Sony and Mont Blanc have become commoditized so, to maintain and stimulate this growing international trade, learning business English is essential for an increasing number of time-pressed businesspeople. The theme of business English can therefore be justified but it should be recognized that learning business English is more than merely phonetics, a lexicon, syntax and semantics as it demands a cultural shift for most ESL learners.

CBI
Kinsella (1997) suggests that ways must be sought that help ESL learners to learn more efficiently so that they are able to move quickly from basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) to cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) (Cummins, 1992). But to achieve this learners first need to obtain process skills or what Short (1998) defines as ‘habits of the mind’ without which success in achieving superior English-speaking skills is unlikely. Towards that end recent innovations in ESL learning have combining English instruction with specialist academic content. For example, several schools including CSULA are attempting to improve test pass rates through the introduction of classes in English with Business Studies. This CBI teaching state Snow and Brinton (1997) can stimulate students towards deeper learning because of their interest in the topic area and because teachers are avoiding TENOR (teaching English for no apparent reason). Crandall and Tucker (1990), who define CBI “an approach to language instruction that integrates the presentation of topics or tasks from subject matter classes (e.g., math, social studies) within the context of teaching a second or foreign language” (p. 187) extol the value of CBI. And, Grabe and Stoller (1997) who claim that in CBI students are automatically exposed to a large amount of language learning which is more comprehensible, claim that it elevates their use of English because it is interesting and relevant to them. To develop their theories further Stoller and Grabe (1997) developed a stepped approach to learning based on the categories of theme; topics, texts, threads, tasks and transitions which has been implemented successfully in several CBI programs. That the combination of ESL and CBI can be successful has therefore been proven. Complications arise when the third element of online instruction is added to the previous combination as this presents unique challenges.

OI
Tapscott and Williams (2008) regale readers with the benefits of extending traditional lines of communication from one-to-one, to one-to-many and then many-to-many so that communities of interest can share their learning and experiences. Clark and Mayer (2008) are more measured in their assessment of internetworking tools for forming learning communities and show that the experience is only as good as the content. They remind teachers of four major considerations: the goal of the training; the prior knowledge of the learners; the environment in which the training is to be deployed and finally the instructional architectures to be used in e-learning lessons. They present structures for help in designing web pages and this approach forces, rather than inhibiting innovation, helps us to think more purposefully about what we are trying to achieve through online learning. For those who wish to make a career of it, this systematic approach shows how they can work with their student to build and retain knowledge. For creating greater efficiencies in English learning, the combination of ESL+CBI+OI could possibly present us with opportunities as OI engages students’ multiple intelligences and invites meta-cognitive activities so that the learning can be reinforced. OI exercises can be designed so that learner input such as listening and reading; and output such as speaking and writing are incorporated in individual as well as group work. And this can offer students new and exciting ways of learning the subject matter they find most interesting. Stewart and Ling (2005) however, remind us that the key to successful implementation lies in careful analysis of the situation, clarity in the stated objectives and a solid strategy.

References
Bauman, Z. (1992). Intimidations of postmodernity. London: Routledge.
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2008). e-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning (2nd ed). San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Crandall, J., & Tucker, R. (1990). Content-based instruction in second and foreign languages. In: A. Padilla, H. Fairchild & C. Valadez (Eds.), Foreign language education: Issues and strategies (pp. 187-200). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Cummins, J. (1992). Language proficiency, bilingualism, and academic achievement. In P. Richard-Amato & M. A. Snow (Eds.), The multicultural classroom: Readings for content-area teachers (pp. 16-26). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (1997). Content-based instruction: Research foundations. In M. A. Snow & D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom: Perspectives in integrating language and content (pp. 5-21). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Kinsella, K. (1997). Moving from comprehensible input to “learning to learn” in content-based instruction. In M. A. Snow & D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom: Perspectives on integrating language and content (pp. 46-68). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Nino-Murcia, M. (2003). English is like the dollar: Hard currency ideology and the status of English in Peru. World Englishes, 22(2), 121-142.
Phillipson, R. (2000). English in the new world order: Variations on a theme of linguistic imperialism and “World” English. In T. Ricento (Ed.), Ideology, politics and language policies: Focus on English (pp. 87-106). Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Saville, N. (2008). Language assessment in the context of migration and citizenship: A framework for considering the issues. Manuscript submitted for publication. Cambridge, UK.
Short, D. J. (2002). Language learning in sheltered social studies classes. TESOL Journal. 11(1), 34-44.
Snow, M. A., & Brinton, D. M. (1997). The content-based classroom: Perspectives on integrating language and content. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Stewart, M., & Ling, J. (2005). Marketing in Practice. Cookham, England: CIM Publishing.
Stoller, F., & Grabe, W. (1997). A six-T’s approach to content-based instruction. In: M. A. Snow & D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The Content-Based Classroom: Perspectives on integrating language and content (pp. 78-94). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Tapscott, D., & Williams, A. D. (2008). Wikinomics: How mass collaboration changes everything (Expanded edition). New York, NY: Portfolio.

Completing Assignments

I have contributed my comments and assessments on the book reviews of 5 peers and the blogs.

Seminar Topic: Online content-based instruction

Introduction
Teaching English for specific purposes has been around for some time, especially where learners have to apprehend a certain vocabulary to help them to work or pass examinations. Content-based instruction is somewhat newer though the principles are the same as ESP (English for Specific Purposes). Some universities have introduced content-based instruction for students who have English as a second language but need to learn academic English in order to pass the subject they are studying. CSULA has for example, recently initiated a limited program of content-based instruction in the business studies department in an attempt to reduce the attrition rate in first year students. Acquiring high standards of academic English simultaneously with subject matter such as business, can be overwhelming and disheartening for some students.

My intention is to develop a series of 5 sessions modelled on the Grabe & Stoller (1997) 6 'T's curriculum design (Theme: Topics, Texts, Threads, Tasks and Transitions). This way of organizing a module is innovative and as I have not seen a content-based module using e-learning techniques for online delivery, this is going to be a real learning challenge for me.

Background
In ESL (English Second Language) teaching, content-based instruction is becoming more popular as students, especially those study business, wish the economies that dual instruction brings (i.e. business & English content). Business+English content ESL instruction is still relatively rare however and, as far as I can see, the application of e-learning techniques to this combination has not yet been explored.

References
Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (1997). Content-based instruction: Research foundation. In M. A. Snow & D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom: Perspectives in integrating language and content (pp. 5-21). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Kinsella, K. (1997). Moving from comprehensible input to "learning to learn" in content-based instruction. In M. A. Snow & D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom: Perspectives in integrating language and content (pp. 5-21). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Wikinomics: How mass collaboration changes everything

California State University Los Angeles

EDIT 490

June 2008

From the two opening chapters of the book, Tapscott and Williams (2008) expound the virtues of new collaborative networks that open the ether to all and anyone wishing to contribute to the common knowledge. Exuding with self-praise at their personal epiphanies and expounding the new forms of collaboration and collectivism, they declare that a new economic democracy is emerging in which we all have a lead role. To illustrate this they offer thumb-nail sketches of large corporations such as Goldcorp Inc. and Proctor and Gamble Inc. as harnessing the munificence of the masses by inviting everyone to contribute their intelligence to solving challenging issues. The authors seem pleased to announce that we no longer have to be on Proctor & Gamble’s payroll to work for them: An opportunity indeed? Anyone harbouring reservations about the unrestricted nature or quality of the contents of these networks is condemned as a fuddy-duddy or, worse still, over 45 years old. The following 11 chapters present not so much a balanced argument surrounding the development of innovative communication applications as a polemic for their ubiquitous introduction. It is a readable book with a homely tone but the lack of source clarity in the “Notes” section (pp.321-340) where for example, some statements have been attributed to writers without mention of the publication, further detracts from its gravitas as scholarly text.

If the lack of balanced argument can be ignored there is some interesting content such as the premise mooted in chapter 6. Here, the authors invoke the gods of ancient Greece to show us how, in a short time, all the publications and communications of the universe will be available to every one of us across the Internet in what they term the Alexandrian revolution. Universal access will they are sure, achieve such things as the improvement of human health, turn the tide on environmental damage, advance human culture and explore outer space through peer-to-peer communications. Facilitating this is innovation in new web architectures and applications that mean it is now easy to collaborate; companies need not be of equal size or importance; they may be in different countries or time zones, and the collaboration may even be across different industry sectors. For those of us in business or education, the most exciting advance in Wikinomics is the ease with which these collaborations can be achieved. This chapter points to the benefits that can accrue from university-industry partnerships when teams of researchers can get together in open web-based discussion, then choose the partners with whom they wish to collaborate. Teams that in the past would have taken months or years to bring together can be built almost instantaneously. Furthermore, these extended networks of partnerships can be built and dissembled and rebuilt to suit the needs of the project and the success and productivity of the relationships. This is the democracy that many of us in the field of education would like to see more vigorously developed.

One further very valuable point is made in chapter 6 regarding the relatively recent extension of scientific patents or “property rights” (p. 179) to new post-human genome discoveries and the contribution that web communications can make in redressing the situation. Recent years have seen the erosion of the rights of scientists to exchange data and information on projects even if it is for the public good. Because of the power of, for example, the large pharmaceutical companies and their self-serving secrecy, it is almost impossible for individuals to challenge these laws but the anonymity of the Internet and the speed at which it can disseminate information could provide a solution. The authors are not anti commerce and understand the contribution that a healthy balance between private enterprise and public foundation makes to society. Their point is well made however, that new web based technologies have the ability to act as vehicles for the sharing of information in support of the ethical standards. Technology can therefore help to maintain an information-access balance in academia as well as commercial enterprise. #

In summary, many of the ideas showcased by the authors have been in circulation for decades (e.g. chapters 8 and 9), and are well understood by people in business and education. To that extent the book introduces little new and it is therefore pretentious in many of the claims of its dust cover reviewers. It does not push the envelope, but it does add value for the reader who has kept up with new multi-media trends in that it reminds us that wiki success depends on the best aspects of human nature, our capacity to trust and to share.


Reference
Tapscott, D., & Williams, A. D. (2008). Wikinomics: How mass collaboration changes everything (expanded ed.). New York, NY: Penguin Group

Developments in Education

It's not only the developments in education that are mind-boggling, or should that be mind-blogging, but the speed at which innovations are taking place. There is still a strong tradition of face-to-face teaching and the benefits of this to the 'whole' student should not be overlooked. Children and students need models of behaviour and it's harder to achieve this via websites, moogles, blogs etc than face-to-face. That's not to say it cannot be done: it's just harder.
As educators we also need to remember that children and students are not empty vessels to be filled with whatever data teachers wish to provide. They are discerning, prejudicial beings with preferences and dislikes. This however is where technology can be a further enabler: by providing students with alternatives, different experiences and opportunities to build their own learning vehicles. For many children, educators will have to be prepared to fill new niches and build new Vygotskian zones while for other children, the greater need is for us to improve our interpersonal and supportive skills. History and Plato, inform us that children and students do not change but the learning environment does.
Technology is therefore a learning opportunity for us all to learn from each other and, apart from valuable life experience, can often put student and teacher on the same platform.